Domesticity, Darkness and Light: An Introduction to the Art of The Dutch Golden Age

Discover the art of the Dutch Golden Age and meet superstars like Hals, Rembrandt and Vermeer! Part six in our Introduction to Art series.

Johannes Vermeer Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665)

You’ll recognise paintings of the Dutch Golden age from the move away from religious subjects to focus on everyday life, use of dramatic light and shadow and use of realism, with a subjects like civic pride, wealth, and trade.

The Dutch Golden Age is roughly dated from 1588, when the Dutch Republic was declared, to 1672  when the Dutch Republic invaded by France, England, and two German bishoprics. The Dutch called this, the Rampjaar (“the disaster year”) because it led to economic crash—and a crash of the art market. Before then, the Dutch Republic was the most prosperous nation in Europe and was renowned for trade and science.

During the Golden Age, Dutch art had to completely reinvent itself following the Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648, when the Dutch revolted against Spanish Hapsburg rule) and the Reformation. This meant that the monarchist and Catholic traditions were no longer a source of inspiration for art. Calvinism was the official religion and because this discouraged grandiose religious art in churches, secular subjects like domestic interiors, portraits of merchants and families and still life became popular. Because the Dutch Republic was self-governing, cities, guilds, and prosperous citizens were usually the focus of art (rather than religious leaders or the monarchy).

Dutch art in this period is different from the Early Netherlandish art we saw in our last post on the Northern Renaissance. These regions were part of the Duchy of Burgundy or under the influence of Habsburg Spain and important cities were Bruges and Antwerp.

Dutch Golden Age painting was created under the Dutch Republic, which roughly covers the modern Netherlands (southern edge of the northern Netherlands) and was produced around a century after what we call “Early Netherlandish art.” The Dutch Republic is officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and covers North Holland, South Holland, Utrecht, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland and Overijssel. It was formed by splitting from the Spanish Habsburgs, while the southern regions (now Belgium) mostly stayed under Spanish control. This latter area contributed to the Flemish Baroque in the same period as the Dutch Republic.

 

Frans Hals 

Frans Hals was born in Antwerp and trained and worked in Haarlem, specialising in painting portraits. He is known for adding a lot of energy to his portraits. 

You can see an example of this in Frans Hals and Pieter Code’s The Company of Captain Reinier Reael and Lieutenant Cornelis Michielsz (1633-1637), which shows a group portrait of volunteer members of the urban elite. The militia members sacked Hals in 1637 and hired Pieter Codde to finish the work.

Frans Hals and Pieter Code’s The Company of Captain Reinier Reael and Lieutenant Cornelis Michielsz (1633-1637) 

The figures Hals painted were unusual because he used animated facial expressions. The positions of the heads and hands of the figures suggests that they are engaged in action or conversation. Portraits were usually rigid at the time.

Distinctive of Hals is the stance of having a hand on the hip and the elbow pointing outwards. Hals’ Nicolaes Pietersz, Duyst van Voorhout (c. 1636-1638) also uses this stance.

Frans Hals’ Nicolaes Pietersz, Duyst van Voorhout (c. 1636-1638)

Hals’ brushstrokes are primarily used to depict highlights and are left visible and unblended on the paint surface. Pieter Codde painted the figures on the right and deliberately maintained Hals’ style rather than using his own style.

In the 17th century, these companies were rarely involved in military conflict and were very popular. Hals belonged to two of them. Position within the militias depended on the wealth and status of the members. Compare this with Rembrandt’s famous painting of the night watch, which is also a group portrait of a militia company.

Clara Peeters

Clara Peeters was from Antwerp and painted at the beginning of the 17th century. She painted still life, which was accessible for women as there was no need for knowledge of human anatomy. Peeters’ Still-life (1611) has several tiny self-portraits in reflections in the painting.

Clara Peeters’ Still Life with Flowers, a Silver-gilt Goblet, Dried Fruit, Sweetmeats, Bread sticks, Wine and a Pewter Pitcher (1611)

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (known simply as Rembrandt) worked in many genres, from landscapes and still lives to portraits, history, religious and mythological paintings. He is one of the most influential artists of the Dutch Golden Age and of all time because of his mastery of chiaroscuro (use of light and shadow).

Rembrandt trained with an Italianate artist, but never travelled to Italy. His art is different from the Italian tradition, because instead of trying to elevate art from human life, Rembrandt stresses real-life experience through incomplete forms and contours, and texture.

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn’s Rembrandt Laughing (1628)

Rembrandt known for his self-portraits. His Rembrandt Laughing (1628) follows the trend of painting small pictures of figures dressed in historical costume with intense expressions.  The pose, with the elbow pointing outwards, and the patch-like application of paint in the face makes the painting look lively, full of energy—this shows the influence of Frans Hals. Rembrandt’s Self-Portrait (1659) was inspired by a portrait by Raphael’s Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione, particularly in the pose.

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn’s Self-Portrait (1659)

Rembrandt is also famous for using the technique of impasto, where heavy paint is worked up with a palette knife. His The Jewish Bride, or Isaac and Rebecca (c. 1665-1669) is a good example of this: the paint is very thickly applied on the golden sleeve of the man and the red dress of the woman. The painting is thought to show either the two Old Testament figures, Isaac and Rebecca, or a Jewish father and his daughter.

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn’s The Jewish Bride, or Isaac and Rebecca (c. 1665-1669)

Rembrandt’s The Raising of Lazarus (c. 1630-1632) shows a story from the gospel according to which Lazarus was resurrected by Christ. The faces and body language seem inquisitive and the expressive use of light is characteristic of Rembrandt.

Rembrandt also worked in printmaking. His Christ Crucified between the Two Thieves: The Three Crosses (1653) and (c. 1660) are the third and fourth state of prints. In the fourth state, Rembrandt has graved and added lines and ink to the metal plate.

Judith Leyster

Judith Leyster was most active from the 1620s to the 1640s and was a contemporary of Hals in Haarlem—many of her works were misattributed to Hals and she has only been given credit in recent years. Leyster is known for her genre scenes, using energetic brushwork, bright colours, and naturalistic details. For instance, her Concert (c. 1633) uses a monochromatic background so as not to distract from the figures.

Gerard ter Borch

Gerard ter Borch’s A Young Woman at her Toilet with a Maid (c. 1650)

Gerard ter Borch specialised in domestic interiors and influenced Vermeer. His A Young Woman at her Toilet with a Maid (c. 1650) shows figures are concentrating on what they are doing, making us feel that we are viewing a private scene. His Gallant Conversation (c. 1654) shows his mastery with fabrics.

Gerard ter Borch’s Gallant Conversation (c. 1654)

Pieter de Hooch

Pieter de Hooch’s The Courtyard of a House in Delft (1658)

Pieter de Hooch worked in Delft and Amsterdam, painting middle class interiors, particularly those that idealise domestic life and maternal care. His The Courtyard of a House in Delft is an example of this. Having said this, De Hooch wasn’t afraid to show unpolished, rough textures and the “wear and tear” of everyday life.

Pieter de Hooch’s A Woman Preparing Bread and Butter for a Boy (1660)

You can see this in his A Woman preparing Bread and Butter for a Boy (c. 1660). This painting also shows his characteristic light from the background and understanding of spatial geometry. He is also known for his earthy tones, spatial clarity and adjacent spaces, all seen in his Woman with a Child in a Pantry (c. 1658).

Pieter de Hooch’s Woman with a Child in a Pantry (c. 1658)

Johannes Vermeer

Johannes Vermeer was born in Delft in the Netherlands. His experience is typical of the time because he painted for houses rather than palaces or churches. He is known for his genre paintings, showing themes from everyday life.

Johannes Vermeer’s The Milkmaid (1658)

Vermeer’s The Milkmaid (1658) is a typical of example of his work. It is a domestic scene showing a maid pouring milk into a bowl with a bread basket at her table. Outside light comes through the side window, which Vermeer loved to paint.

Johannes Vermeer’s Woman in Blue Reading a Letter (1663)

Vermeer’s Woman in Blue Reading a Letter (c. 1663) combines observation of detail with harmony of the vertical and horizontal shapes and lines. Vermeer uses unifying light to create harmony. For instance, the soft light falls from the left onto the face of the woman and highlights her blue jacket, lights up the texture of the back wall, and the left edge of the map that hangs there. The light indicates that the woman is standing in front of the window and in most other Vermeer paintings there is a window on the left. This evokes the absence of the sender.

Johannes Vermeer’s Woman Holding a Balance (1664)

Vermeer’s Woman Holding a Balance (c. 1664) is carefully designed with a balance of vertical and horizontal lines. The painting is typical of Vermeer as it uses echoing forms and colours. Art historians say that this slows our pace and makes the scene like a frozen moment.  The picture on the wall behind the woman is the last judgment (an analogy with the scale). This was meant to remind viewers of the need to live moderately and to carefully weigh one’s actions.

Vermeer’s Love Letter (c. 1667) uses a lute to allude to music and love, indicating that the letter that the lady in yellow shows her maid is a love letter. Vermeer makes the viewer feel like uninvited guests looking into a private space. He uses linear perspective to do this: several lines in this painting would intersect if they were extended (the bottom limit of a map; the receding tiles on the floor; the arm of the lute held by the woman; and the stick of the broom in the lower right).

Johannes Vermeer’s Love Letter (1667)

Perhaps most famous of all is Vermeer’s Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665) is one of the world’s most famous paintings (sometimes referred to as the Dutch “Mona Lisa”). It is a tronie (a representation of a character rather than a portrait of an actual person like the Mona Lisa).

Find out about Baroque art in our next post in the series!

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